Eschatological Ethics, Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas on Happiness through Eschatological Ethics and Law (an essay...)

Throughout history, humans have been on a perpetual quest in the search for happiness. Philosophers, theologians, and intellectuals have dedicated their lives to deciphering how to obtain this blissful state of joy. Thomas Aquinas addresses the fundamental question of what is happiness? He synthesizes and constructs a biblical eschatology through four laws (eternal, divine, natural, and human law) to signify humanity's happiness found in the ultimate end of God alone. It is only through the activity and use of reason and revelation that one can procure the nature of God through ethics and virtues aligning with a beatific vision. Herein eternal happiness can be obtained, with a glimpse thereof in this lifetime. We live in an inaugurated kingdom. In time, we will someday undergo death, judgment, and the second coming of Christ to finally be united to God, who is our complete happiness.

In Summa Contra Gentiles, written to establish the Christian faith through reason, Thomas Aquinas envisages a biblical eschatology. The human soul will be elevated into a heavenly state after bodily death and be "lightsome" (Matthew 13:43, 1 Corinthians 15:43) based on the merit of Christ. In this heavenly state where there is “fullness of joy” and “pleasures forevermore,” every desire will have fulfillment: there will be no more suffering, the possession of new glorified bodies, and a sharing of God's goodness and perfection (Psalm 16:11). This human life and the extent one aligns themselves with the "divine vision," namely those who embrace salvation through Jesus Christ, will be covered by the grace of God at the coming judgment day (Ephesians 2:8-9).

Aquinas attempts to extrapolate how humans possess the power to make the most out of this lifetime and prepare themselves for the next with the eschatological, divine vision of glorified, heavenly bodies. Through biblical understanding, he develops the four laws: eternal law, divine law, natural law, and human law. Aquinas's four laws are intrinsically a part of his works, specifically in his Summa Theologiae. Understanding law as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, which is made by the person who has care of the community, and this rule is promulgated."1 It is important to note that the four laws are distinct; the eternal and divine laws are superior, while the others are contingent upon them. This paper will first examine the eternal and divine law and subsequently delve into the natural and human law, in sequence with Aquinas' importance and in relation to obtaining happiness.2

Eternal law is rooted in the eschatological view of God's plan for the world, including death, judgment, and the end of humanity. Moreover, it is God's divine wisdom regulating all things and the “common good” (Proverbs 8), leading to the "divinely appointed end."3 It is essential to understand Aquinas's emphasis on the end, as he asserts man lives for an end or else “no one would begin to do anything” if there were none.4 Furthermore, man cannot have more than one ultimate end, as “no man can serve two masters” (Matthew 6:24).5 This one end is found in the participation of the eternal law as it is the only pathway in obtaining ultimate happiness, while all other ends fall short.6

Humans can only know of the eternal law through natural reason and God's grace through revelation. The eternal law derives from Scripture such as Ephesians 1:4-5 that we may be "holy and blameless" under God's divine wisdom. Aquinas's dependency on Scripture propels us to the divine law. Accordingly, divine law is the Scriptural laws found in the Old Testament and New Testament that God has revealed to us throughout history.7 Divine providence is the essence of eternal law.

Furthermore, to understand Thomas Aquinas's eschatological view, one must also understand St. Augustine of Hippo's profound influence and interpretation of the book of Revelation and the inaugurated kingdom. In the City of God, Augustine observes, while Aquinas later maintains, the juxtaposition of Revelation 21:1-8; dual citizenship in this world with the love of self, in contrast with the heavenly world and the love of God.8 It takes the discernment, wisdom, and rationale of humans to allege themselves and their primary devotion to the city of God through the grace of God and the power of the Holy Spirit.

Based on humanity’s participation in the eternal law, we will individually undergo judgment at the second coming of Christ (John 5:26-29, Ecclesiastes 12:14). According to Aquinas, God is man's ultimate end, and our life's actions are judged based on our understanding, intellect, and personal will to share in the eternal and divine laws. The wrath of God and his judgment is significant as it dictates our participation in the eternal law through the use of reason and human rationale.

The primary principle of natural law is that “good is to be done and evil avoided” through reason: knowledge, intellect, and will.9 The power of natural law pilots an individual to actions of good or evil. It is here we find Aquinas’s metaphysics of ongoing movement and activity. Aristotle heavily influenced Albertus Magnus, Aquinas’s mentor, and consequently Aquinas. 10 Rather than presuming the thought of many theologians, at the time, in either altogether rejecting the work of Aristotle or contrarily embracing his philosophy while repudiating Christian doctrines, Aquinas sought to find a midpoint between the two.11 While holding to a Neoplatonist framework, believing that humanity can experience God and unite themselves to him in this world through intellect, he combines it with the work of Aristotle in practical wisdom.12 According to Aristotle, man cannot simply possess knowledge; one’s intellect and understanding must penetrate to the experiences, particularly human activity. It is through human activity that man can obtain the highest good, indicatively, ultimate happiness.13 Here, Aquinas modifies Aristotle’s philosophy to say that God is man’s highest good and ultimate happiness; God does not simply lead humanity to happiness or goodness; he is happiness and goodness by his essence. He interweaves the work of Aristotle and Scripture to say that God is esse, pure act, meaning he is the very core of existence and our highest good:

Esse is the actuality of every form or nature, for goodness or humanity is spoken of as actual, only because they are spoken of as esse. Therefore, esse itself must be compared to essence, if the essence is distinctly from it, as actuality to potentiality. Therefore, since in God there is nothing potential, as shown above, it follows that in him, essence does not differ from his esse. Therefore, his essence is his esse.14

Esse is the universal perfection and happiness to which all of humanity knowingly or unknowingly aims to achieve. Aquinas expands Aristotle’s metaphysics to say that knowledge of pure act, esse, moves humans from potentiality to actuality in actively pursuing goodness rather than evil (for God himself is goodness). Therefore, the ultimate end is goodness, and humans can only find ultimate happiness through actively pursuing this end.15 Natural law uses reason through the eternal and divine law, "the rational creatures participation in the eternal law...whereby God governs us according to his wisdom and love."16 Participation in the eternal law leads to esse.

The fourth law consequently narrows the former laws to the specificity of time and place. Human law is “the interpretation of natural law in different contexts”17 and “an ordinance of reason for the common good.”18 As the antecedent laws can never change, human law can adjust to current circumstances. Human laws are created or enforced by governing authorities or leaders of a particular community. These authorities are known as “quasi-instrument[s] of God in governing His people.”19 Eternal, divine, and even natural law can exist as a more conceptual and visionary lens through which we view eschatology. In contrast, human law points us practically to ways life can be prescripted daily.

There are two perilous areas to consider within human law: governing authorities' incorrect interpretation of the former laws, and more specifically, the unjust laws that repudiate the eternal law. As stated in Acts 5:29, “We must obey God rather than man,” and Aquinas says that humans are not bound to laws that contradict the higher laws.20 Human law must administer the lucidity and practicality of natural law, participating in the eternal law. Concurring with unjust or incorrect laws will hinder one’s pursuit of happiness.

Moreover, Aquinas’s four laws collectively and practically impress and dictate eschatology and our human response: acting and seeking the ultimate end through acquired virtues. Aquinas aligns his metaphysics with Aristotle’s writing on the Second Act. As previously noted, humans move from simply possessing knowledge and power into exercising it through activity, yet specifically in ethics and virtues.21

At the outset, Aquinas begins the second part of Summa Theologiae to ethics, found in the beatitudes in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5).22 Man's natural inclination might lead to the pursuit of wealth, power, fame, or glory. However, ultimate happiness is found conversely and practically in the active life of the beatitudes: humility, meekness, duty/gratuity, justice, mercy, and peace.23 To align oneself with God and eternal law, one must orient themselves by a beatific vision.24 In human freedom of choice, and through the consequences of the Fall and our sin (Genesis 3), our ability to lose sight of the ultimate end to worldly pleasures or pursuits is profound. The reality of incessant distractions on human will and intellect leads to a continual re-prioritization of activity. As St. Augustine writes, we are sojourners, pilgrims on this earth that will never reach complete happiness in this lifetime.25 Aquinas upholds this in stating Matthew 22:30, we will one day be “as the angels of God in heaven” and “united to God in one, continual, everlasting activity” where we obtain superlative, eternal happiness.26 Accordingly, the eschatological ethics and acquired beatific virtues align us to God, through the grace of Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit, to glimpse the beauty of eternal happiness on this earth.

Aquinas urges us to exercise diligence in attaining habits and virtues that align with the ultimate end, God’s goodness, through a beatific vision. Francesca Murphy states that the end times, eschatology, and "revelation [have] never been the central driving force of mainstream western or eastern theological tradition."27 To that end, application today is no different than it was in the time of Aquinas. The pathway to happiness is in human intellect, dictating our will toward the ultimate end, leading to eschatological ethics. By participating in the eternal law, activating Aquinas's Treatise on Happiness exerts us to direct our focus on esse, the ultimate end. The supremacy of the gospel must lead to a response in daily discipleship, actively living out our salvation. A practical way to prioritize this viewpoint is to broaden our understanding and knowledge of God through study, participation in the Church, and to read the Bible. Additionally, morning prayers, or acquired habits to begin each day, and refocus ourselves throughout the day on the eternal spectrum of life aligns us to Aquinas’s eschatological ethics. An example of prayer by Aquinas is as follows:

Grant me, O Lord my God, a mind to know you, a heart to seek you, wisdom to find you, conduct pleasing to you, faithful perseverance in waiting for you, and a hope of finally embracing you. Amen.28

What is happiness? Thomas Aquinas equates the very essence of God as consummate happiness. The role of humankind is to continually move from potentiality to actuality, actively pursuing esse through participation in the eternal law -- employing the divine, natural and human laws. When the judgment day of Christ comes, “each may receive what is due for what he has done in the body, whether good or evil,” and that which was determined by the individual’s reason through intellect and will (2 Corinthians 5:10). With the revelation of divine wisdom, biblical eschatology, and practical beatific ethics, we can take part in advancing towards the one end, esse -- united to God, where ultimate happiness is found (John 17).

Sources:
Aquinas, Thomas. Commentary on the Four Gospels. 
Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. 
Aquinas, Thomas. Treatise on Happiness. 
Augustine and Marcus Dods. The City of God. 
Bradley, Raymond. “The Relation Between Natural Law and Human Law in Thomas Aquinas,” The Catholic Lawyer 21, no. 1 (1975).
Hill, Jonathan. The History of Christian Thought. 
Rziha, John. Perfecting Human Actions: St. Thomas Aquinas on Human Participation in Eternal Law.